Effect of Technology on De-Skilling

Effect of Technology on De-Skilling Critically assess the contention that the introduction of new technologies into an organisation inevitably leads to de-skilling? As technology becomes ever more prominent in working practices the de-skilling debate is becoming more crucial. The following arguments will look at the effects of new technology with regard to de-skilling from the social deterministic point of view, particularly within the craft and service industries. The social deterministic view is that technology has no impact whatsoever on an organisation, apart from the strategic choices made by those who control the organisation. Marxists believe that the introduction of new technology has negative social connotations, arguing that technology is introduced by management with the sole intention of controlling and de-skilling labour. This perspective has been adopted by Braverman. Managerialists however, favour the positive social impacts of technology, believing it is management choices that determine the effects that technology has. Bravermans (1974) de-skilling thesis, based on Marxist theories, focused on the Taylorist aspects of breaking down complex skilled work into simple unskilled tasks. This enabled the introduction of technology to replace workers. Braverman also theorised that the introduction of new technology into the workplace, was carried out with the intention of replacing workers or making them work faster, as in the case of Fords production line assembly. Braverman argued that together, these were the two principal factors which led to the degradation and de-skilling of work. Braverman (1974:171) states, The unity of thought and action, conception and execution, hand and mind, which capitalism threatened from its beginnings, is now attacked by a systematic dissolution employing all the resources of science and the various engineering disciplines based upon it Braverman argues that the introduction of capitalist equipment is introduced with the intention of de-skilling workers by simplifying task s in a Tayloristic manner, or by simply replacing workers roles with technology. Much of Bravermans theory was based upon his own personal experience as a sheet metal worker, and subsequently an office worker. Bravermans de-skilling theory is associated mainly with the craft and service style proletariat industries. However, skills today can be perceived as something very different to skills in the 19th century. Certainly the jobs today differ greatly from those in the past. Barron and Robinson (2007) use the more recent example of the catering industry. New technology has enabled the outsourcing of production, provisions and labour. In essence this has lead to the de-skilling of catering workers, through the removal of many of their tasks. For example, chefs in many of the hospitality industry sectors are no longer allowed to demonstrate individuality and creative flair, but instead produce a standardised product. . Standardisation, or industrialisation, in foodservice, aims to guarantee consistent output while controlling the production process. Typically, this involves the replacement of skill with technology. (Barron and Robinson, 2007). Here the Tayloristic aspects of Bravermans de-skilling thesis are evident as the production process is broken down into simple controlled tasks, whereby new technology can replace workers. This process may be even more evident in multi-national corporations, where the same standard of product and service is expected worldwide. The Tayloristic principles adopted by many fast food restaurants, particularly noticeable in McDonalds, have led to repetitive and un-skilled tasks (Ritzer:2004). Ritzer argues that many of these have been made possible by developments in technology. Bravermans theory is demonstrated perfectly here. A Tayloristic management style coupled with the introduction of new technology has led to the simplification of jobs and ultimately their de-skilling. Ritzer also examined how the principles implemented in McDonalds were becoming more apparent in other sectors of society, such as call centres, supermarkets and even hospitals. The development of technology alongside Tayloristic management principles has meant it is possible for companies to outsource call centres, from Western European and American countries to India and other developing third world countries. Marxist theorists view the introduction of capital as a way for managers and companies to control and de-skill labour by reducing bargaining power and use value (Corbett:2009). The outsourcing of call centres is removing jobs from employees in Western Europe and America. Employees and knowledge are replaced by technology, so diminishing the bargaining power of the labour force. Outsourcing also employs lower skilled labour which translates to reduced wages and increased profits. Hence, the capital introduced has been employed to control and de-skill workers. Marxists have a radical perspective of how workers should accept the means and ends of a firm, arguing that workers should resist against the firm. They argue that the introduction of capital is exploiting workers as a higher value product is created, but wages are generally not increased (Roberts:2009). Profit made by workers is disproportionately divided between employees, managers and owners and as such a conflict of interest arises (Roberts:2009). Bravermans hypothesis and Marxists views on social determinism are not without detractors or limitations. The social -deterministic managerialist perspective of new technology holds the view that technology has no impact whatsoever on de-skilling. The decisions to de-grade or up-grade the skill of workers are the strategic choices of those who control the organisation. This perspective is supported by the New Technology Power Loop, which demonstrates that the design and choice of new technology, that is the strategic choices of management, can shape the control of a workforce. This in turn defines the level of expertise needed for implementation. The social-deterministic managerialist perspective holds the view that the expertise of the workforce has an influence over the design and choice of the technology at the beginning of the loop. Looking back to the example Barron and Robinson use of the hospitality industry it can be said that it is managements decision to standardise product s and menus through the simplification and de-skilling of jobs and the subsequent introduction of new technology. Wood (1987) considers the decisions of management regarding the introduction of technology, Certain tasks may be de-skilled in content because of technological changes, yet this may not amount to the de-skilling of any particular individual. Unskilled men may be allocated to these jobs, which for the purpose of argument may require a higher level of skill than they previously exercised, and skilled men who occupied the job prior to the change might be moved to superior skilled jobs, for example, the maintenance of new technology. Here Wood argues that, with the right job reorganisation technology can lead to the upgrading of skill. Atwell (1987) examines the work of data entry clerks in an insurance company. These are relatively unskilled workers who are able to enter the insurance claims onto the system and then pass them onto the examiner to process. In this example the examiners job is upgraded as the lower skilled tasks have been removed. The data entry clerks have also gained ne w skills as the introduction of technology has enabled them to begin entering insurance claims, a more highly skilled task than they were previously completing. The de-skilling effect, which the introduction of new technology can bring, can be revoked by managements strategic choices. The introduction of new technology, and the de-skilling effect it may or may not have, cannot be fully divorced from the context in which it occurs. The social-deterministic model also supports the theory that the successful introduction of new technology can be reliant on the tacit knowledge and skills of employees, as the choice of technology made by managers is affected by the expertise of employees. Wilkinson (1982) uses the example of the optical lens manufacturer. When new technology was introduced, the highly skilled staff were retained in order to exploit their knowledge and experience of the production processes. This indicates that not all skills can be degraded with the replacement of workers with technology. Jones and Wood (1984) also argue the importance of existing working knowledge and tacit skills to the effective implementation of new technology. As a result, it is impossible to say that new technology completely de-grades workers skill as the tacit knowledge that many have would still be regarded as a skill. Furthermore, the social-deterministic technology power loop model suggests that the tacit knowledge is ne cessary for successful introduction of new technology. Although some aspects of a workers job may have been de-skilled the worker has the ability to enrich their job with other tasks, perhaps more complex than their prior job, thus wholly up-skilling their job. Managerialists support the social -determinism theory and talk of technology as enabling organisational change and improvements (Corbett, 2009) Fincham and Rhodes (2005 need to check whether this is a direct quote and add page number) stress that technological development should be seen as a positive force, as part of the progressive elimination of alienating working conditions and their replacement with work which is more socially integrating is happening more or less as part of industrial evolution. In the instance of outsourcing, although the introduction of new technology is initially de-skilling, it is removing the lower skilled jobs from the economy and making way for more highly skilled jobs to be created as part of the economic development. Therefore, although in the short term technology has increased job mobility by providing temporary job cuts, it can have positive effects, such as en-skilling, as workers learn new trades. New technology may well have had an effect on the increasing number of career changes, but if this is leading to workers gaining new skills in new careers then surely it is re-skilling (the growth of wholly new skills) in the long term. Littler (1982, 1990) and Littler and Salaman (1982) critiqued Bravemans work arguing that if industrial capitalism itself can create new skills there can be no simple de-skilling process Fincham and Rhodes (2005:396). The managerialist perspective holds the view that, technology has no impact on people or performance in an organisation independent of those who would use it and the responses of those who have to operate it (Jones, 1982:199). This suggests that the introduction of technology has no impact on a firm, unless a resistance against technology is made by those who have to use it or operate it. Managerialists have a unitarist perspective on workers co-operation with management decisions. They believe that management should be able to make strategic choices that benefit the firm and that will have the desired economic outcome. Workers, from this perspective are required to co-operate with the means and ends of the firm as management will have the workers best interests at heart. The means of a firm relates to how work is organised, and the ends, the creation of private profit (Roberts:2009). In relation to the introduction of new technology, the managerialist view is that workers should co- operate with the strategic choices made by firms. It can however, be said that it is un-realistic to presume that managers always have employees best interests at heart. From this point of view a Marxist approach can be adopted, holding a negative opinion of the social impact of technology. They believe that management introduce capital with the sole intention of control and de-gradation of working practices and skill. Thus to conclude, the managerialist social-deterministic view that technology can have a positive social impact on working practices, disproves the contention that the introduction of technologies inevitably leads to de-skilling. Managements strategic choices, regarding job re-organisation, job numbers, and the type of technology employed, will always have an effect on the level of de-skilling which occurs. Subsequently, the level of de-skilling cannot be divorced from the context in which it occurs. Many factors can revoke the level of de-skilling, be it the tacit knowledge of existing employees or managements re-organisation of job roles once technology has been introduced. Furthermore, managerialists hold a unitarist perspective of how workers should re-act to change. The underlying belief that managers have workers best interests at heart would encourage employees co-operation with the means and ends of a firm. In addition, managerialists view the introduction of technology as a method of enabling change and economic development within an organisation, and should be viewed as a positive force.

Was the Outbreak of General War in 1914 Inevitable After the Assassination of Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand

Was the outbreak of general war in 1914 inevitable after the assassination of Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand? Various different factors led to the outbreak of the first World War- a war which incorporated all human, economic and military resources available to achieve total victory over the enemy. Roughly, the causes can be classified into long term (Franco-Prussian War, Imperialism, Alliance System, Anglo- German Naval Arms Race, etc. ), short term (Morrocan Crisis, Agadir Crisis, Bosnian Crisis, Balkan Wars) and the immediate cause of World War I: The assassination of Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo.Although all of the causes added to the outbreak of World War I, the assassination of Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand made the war inevitable for the European Powers. It took the last chance of a peaceful solution to the European conflict and can be classified as the most important immediate cause of the war. The assassination of Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand is seen as the most important immedi ate cause of World War I. On the 28th of June, Franz Ferdinand was shot by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Slavic nationalist group â€Å"Black Hand Movement†, in Sarajevo, Bosnia.The Arch Duke had been on a good-will mission to Bosnia in order to calm the situation and bring peace to the region. Directly after the assassination, the Serbian Government was blamed by Austria-Hungary as being responsible for Franz Ferdinand’s death. This assumption may have been made because there were some few connections between members of the Serbian government and the â€Å"Black Hand Movement†. On the same day, Serbia denied any responsibility for the assassination.After this, the Austrian-Hungarian government assured itself of German Support on the 5th of July 1914 through the diplomat count Hoyos by sending a letter to Berlin which stated that it was almost sure that the Serbian Government was involved in the assassination. It also implied Austria-Hungary’s will to crush Serbia militarily in order to prevent a strong bulwark of Slavic nations under the leadership of Serbia. To the letter, Kaiser Wilhelm II answered that Austria-Hungary could â€Å"rest assured that his Majesty will faithfully stand by Austria-Hungary, as is required by the obligations of his alliance and of his ancient friendship†.After the German reassurance, Austria-Hungary proceeded by setting an ultimatum to Serbia on the 23rd of July with the following terms: 1. Officially condemn anti-Austrian publications and propaganda 2. Suppress anti-Austrian societies 3. Ban anti-Austrian teachers and books from their schools 4. Dismiss any government officials that Austria might name 5. Accept help from Austria in checking obnoxious propaganda 6. Allow Austrian officials to assist in the investigation of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.Serbia accepted all terms except the one that allowed Austrian officials to further investigate the murder of Franz Ferdinand on the 25th of July. T his marks the final trigger for the outbreak of World War I; on the 28th of July 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and a fatal chain reaction began. One reason for the outbreak of World War I being inevitable after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand was that this assassination was the long awaited chance for Austria-Hungary and the other European Powers to begin a war. For Austria-Hungary, war was favorable because it aimed to gain power in the Balkan region.This was only possible if Serbia was in a weak position without the chance to interfere with Austrian-Hungarian interests. Furthermore, Austria-Hungary feared that a strong Serbian state would lead to a unified Slavic empire under the leadership of Serbia. Therefore, a military intervention to crush Serbia was in the interest of Austria-Hungary. For Germany, war was favorable because of the Weltpolitik principle, according to which Germany wanted to seize a more important role in the World by territorial expansion a nd military power.Also, Germany was obliged to its alliance with Austria-Hungary and had to stand with its ally in case of war. Various German generals, e. g. von Moltke, believed that the July crisis was a good time for Germany to go to war in order to prevent being crushed by the entente powers and to preempt Russian mobilization in order to be able to fulfill the Schlieffen plan. Also, war was a good means of distraction from domestic problems in Germany, like the rise of socialist movements.For the Entente Powers Russia, France and Great Britain war was favorable because it gave them the possibility of weakening Germany, which had grown to a big threat for these powers. According to Pearce and Lowe, Great Britain had shown its will for war through the naval talks with Russia in 1914. Nonetheless, there is some ambiguity about Great Britain longing for a war of this scale. For Russia, war was favorable because it had to show strength after some weak responses to the Balkan Crises . Through the general mobilization, Russia reinforced this will.Only France did not really want to get involved in a large scale after the defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1871. Nonetheless, France had to mobilize after the German side took up the Schlieffen Plan. Another reason for war becoming inevitable was the Alliance System that was set up during the various European disputes before World War I. Austria-Hungary and Germany as well as Italy were connected in a Triple Alliance. On the other side, there was a Triple Entente between France, Russia and Great Britain. After the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, this took full effect.After the declaration of war on Serbia by Austria-Hungary on the 28th of July, Russia mobilized in order to protect Serbia. This brought Germany having to declare war on Russia on the 1st of August because of its guarantee to protect Austria-Hungary. In order to be able to fulfill the Schlieffen Plan (this plan was meant to quickly defeat France and to then focus on the Eastern Front in order for Germany not having to fight a two front war against France and Russia), Germany declared war on France shortly afterwards on the 3rd of August.This brought Great Britain into the war on the 4th of August because it had to declare war on Germany in order to hold its alliance with France. Lastly, Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia on the 6th of August in order to support Germany. So in only 9 days, all European powers were at war with each other. According to AJP Taylor, â€Å"World War I was a war by time table. † Through the alliance system, war was being made inevitable simply by the obligations of the European Powers towards each other.On the one hand, powers like France and Britain were not completely committed to beginning a world war; on the other hand they had to adhere to the clauses of the Triple Entente in order to stay under protection themselves and to not lose credibility while facing disputes around Europe. Over all, the Alliance System was one of the main reasons that made the outbreak of war inevitable after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. One other reason for the outbreak of war becoming inevitable was the military preparation that had already taken place and that made it easy to act and easy to step into a war.Firstly, all of the European powers had increased their spending on military goods drastically. From 1872 to 1912, Germany’s armament spending increased by nearly 350 per cent, Russia’s by around 250 per cent and Britain’s by around 175 per cent. This shows, that all European Powers were already planning for war time. In 1914, the alliances had a strong military force and were about equal in their weaponry. Secondly, the European Powers all had finished war plans ready to be taken up very quickly. Germany had the Schlieffen Plan, France had Plan 17 and Austria-Hungary had Plan R.These plans included tactical movement and a detailed procedure of how to qu ickly outmaneuver the enemy. Through the existence of the plans, the European powers felt strong because they knew that they were prepared for a quick transition into war. This lowered the barrier for an outbreak of war very much. Through the war plans that were ready and the high military spending the outbreak of war was facilitated very much. Another reason that made war inevitable was the reliance of Austria-Hungary upon Germany. Had Austria-Hungary acted immediately, according to John Keegan, the war could have stayed only in the Balkan regions.Furthermore, according to Keegan, more communication could have prevented the First World War. Had all the European Powers communicated clearly their goals, negotiations and local wars could have been the consequence instead of a massive world war. Austria-Hungary lacked the courage to act independently in the Serbian Crisis. Germany wanted a diplomatic success but was not totally interested in taking part in a World War. Russia did not w ant the outbreak of a world war but did know that their support for Serbia would increase the probability of the outbreak of a world war.France had not yet mobilized but feared that Germany wanted to trigger a World War. Great Britain was reluctant to a war but would not leave France in danger of a German attack. Had all of these aims and thoughts been communicated clearly between the nations, then a war could possibly have been prevented. Through the Russian mobilization and the declaration of war on Serbia by Austria-Hungary with German support, the war was triggered before negotiations and peace talks could have taken place. Overall, war became inevitable after the assassination of Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand for various reasons.Firstly, many European Powers saw the assassination as the chance to get involved in a war to strengthen the own position. Secondly, the alliance system made it very hard to evade a war breaking out. Thirdly, the European powers had already done a lot of pr eparation for the war. This made the outbreak of war easier. Lastly, the lack of communication and negotiation between the European powers took the last chance of a peaceful solution. In my opinion, after the assassination of Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand, the outbreak of World War I became inevitable.

Sigmund Freud Ideology

Sigmund Freud explored many new concepts in the human mind during his lifetime. He was the scholar who discovered an immense new realm of the mind, the unconscious. He was the philosopher who identified childhood experience, not racial destiny or family fate, as the vessel of character, and he is the therapist who invented a specific form of treatment for mentally ill people, psychoanalysis. This advanced the revolutionary notion that actual diagnosable diseases can be cured by a technology that dates to the dawn of humanity: speaking.Sigmund Freud, writing more than 320 books, articles and essays on psychotherapy in his lifetime, forever changed how society viewed mental illness and the meaning of their dreams. However, controversy over Freud’s theories surrounded his experiments in whether or not they were wholly accurate scientifically. By not being able to correctly recreate the experiments, the actual â€Å"success rate† of his theories cannot be tested for their a ccuracy in accordance to what Freud stated about his work.Thus, many scientists and influential scholars believe that â€Å"Freud brings the techniques of introspection employed by early nineteenth century poets but lacks aspects of nineteenth century science† (Hutton 62). Overall, the psychoanalytic theories of Sigmund Freud are difficult to access scientifically as far as helping mentally ill people recover in reference to treatments outlined in his work. On May 6, 1856 in Freiberg, Moravia, Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, was born as the first child of Jakob and Amalia Freud.Freud had seven siblings, and described himself as his mother’s special favorite- her â€Å"golden Siggie† (Thornton). In his early life, he enrolled at the University of Vienna in 1873 where Freud did research in physiology for six years under the German scientist Ernst Brucke and received his medical degree in 1881. He then became a doctor at Vienna General Hospital and set up a private practice center for the treatment of psychological disorders in 1886.During World War II, his books were burned along with those by other famous thinkers. â€Å"What progress we are making,† Freud told a friend. â€Å"In the Middle Ages they would have burnt me; nowadays they are content with burning my books† (Thornton). Freud was interrogated by the Gestapo before his friend, Marie Bonaparte, was able to secure their safe passage to England. Bonaparte also tried to rescue Freud's four younger sisters, but was unable to do so. All four women later died in Nazi concentration camps. During this time, Freud as married to Martha Bernays, and the couple would have six children in their lifetimes. One of them, Anna, who was also interrogated by the Gestapo, was to become a distinguished psychoanalyst herself. Ultimately, after having undergone more than twenty surgeries, Sigmund died in September 1939 due to cancer of the mouth and throat from excessive cigar smoking. The Interpretation of Dreams, originally published under the title of ‘Die Traumdeutung’ in November of 1899, perfectly portrays Freud’s theories from Freud’s point of view.His other works, including The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, and Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, do not compel Freud to look into himself like in The Interpretation of Dreams, for â€Å"The Interpretation of Dreams is the primary documentation of Freud’s self-analysis† (Parsons). Furthermore, he considered this novel to be his greatest work, even though it was his first. To modern scholars, however; â€Å"His autobiography is rather a record of his public accomplishments. On the whole he presents himself as he wished to be viewed by the world, not as he struggled in his interior life with his personal dilemmas† (Hutton 62).Many important ideas that contributed to the theories in Freud’s novel came from influential academic scholars such as Joseph Breuer, Jean Charcot and Ernst Brucke. Even then, the ideas portrayed in The Interpretation of Dreams, are controversial due to their authenticity. Sigmund Freud and his mentor Brucke wrote on hysteria. They explained their theory: Every hysteria is the result of a traumatic experience, one that cannot be integrated into the person's understanding of the world.The emotions appropriate to the trauma are not expressed in any direct fashion, but do not simply evaporate: They express themselves in behavior that in a weak, vague way offers a response to the trauma. These symptoms are, in other words, meaningful. When the client can be made aware of the meanings of his or her symptoms (through hypnosis, for example) then the unexpressed emotions are released and so no longer need to express themselves as symptoms. With Charcot, many of Charcot's patients suffered from a bizarre array of physical and emotional problems, symptoms of a puzzling affliction doctors called â€Å"hyst eria. Freud became deeply interested in the plight of patients, typically women, who suffered from hysteria. Through the study of hysteria, Charcot would introduce young Freud to the mysteries he would spend the rest of his life trying to fathom – the power of mental forces hidden away from conscious awareness. Furthermore, â€Å"Freud’s father died four years prior to the publication. Painful and disturbing, the long run effect of freeing Freud from his inhibitions impeded his work† (Parsons).The death of Freud’s father most likely had a significant effect on his mind for the topics stated in The Interpretation of Dreams included a great sense of loss of a parental figure, relating to Freud’s ideas of infantile sexuality To Freud, this sexuality covers a much wider concept other than genital intercourse between a male and female. But whatever shape or form of sexuality one eventually takes, Freud asserts, it inevitably has its roots in the infanti le sexuality, which is described in terms of sexual development in the first few years of a life of an infant.He may have written about this topic unaware that he was relating his thoughts to the loss of his father. This also goes hand in hand with Freud’s theory of the unconscious. Freud viewed the unconscious mind as a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that is outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. According to Freud, the unconscious continues to influence human behavior and experience, even though they are unaware of these underlying influences.In the end, â€Å"He never ceased to extend and modify his theories† even when disagreements about Freud’s work erupted in the scientific community (Davis). The controversy surrounding Freud’s theories today occurs for many reasons. For example, he stated that his method of psyc hoanalysis cured mental illness; however, there is no way to prove that a patient has become mentally stable, for the patient’s symptoms may have simply been alleviated for a time. Even now â€Å"There is difficulty in specifying what counts as a cure for a neurotic illness, and what counts as a neurotic illness† (Davis).Also, â€Å"Freud’s theory could have been generated by logical confusions from long standing addiction to cocaine† (Girard). Before the harmful effects were discovered, cocaine was often used as an analgesic and euphoric. It was used in household products, and even soda and throat lozenges. Freud developed an interest in the potential antidepressant effects of cocaine, and initially advocated its use for a variety of purposes. This frequent use of the narcotic drug could have effected how Freud treated his patients, and how accurately he conducted his experiments.Disagreements over whether Freud was dependent on the drug shroud the scien tist’s credibility as well, however; it is certain that he used the narcotic drug himself, not just for his patients. As for the science within Freud’s groundbreaking discoveries, â€Å"There was something in his method akin to that of the magi of the Renaissance† (Hutton 61). Freud even stated that during his adolescent years, he was fascinated by dreams, and that allure drove him to study the human mind.It was for a purely individual appeal to discover himself that Freud started his lifelong career. Furthermore, most academic scholars today see Freud’s work as â€Å"Lacking scientific evidence, overemphasizing sex, and having frequent chauvinistic viewpoints† (Parsons). Freud’s infantile sexuality theory is based on data collection from the samples of only a particular group of people in Vienna. Many then argue that the infantile sexuality should differ from one society and culture to another.For example, in eastern societies where the fam ily is not a nuclear one, unlike most western families, the Oedipus Complex should not be as Freud suggests since there are more objects to which love and hate may be directed. This is indeed true but again, even if Freud’s work is just a representation of the western society, it still gives a lot of credible explanations for what happens in the western society in terms of neuroses, behaviors and psychology. Researchers are tapping into the chemistry of the unconscious, exploring the theory of repression, even testing ways to block traumatic memories.What they are finding does not necessarily prove Freud right or wrong but after decades of polarization between neuroscience (the study of the brain) and psychoanalysis (exploration of the mind), the two fields are beginning to find common ground. Dr. Eric Kandel, a Columbia professor, Howard Hughes Medical Institute senior investigator and Nobel Prize winner for his work on learning and memory speaks on Freud's greatest contribu tions: Much of what we do is unconscious. That is a revelation that largely comes from Freud.The fact that dreams have psychological meaning, that infants are active, thinking individuals who have sensual as well as painful experiences also comes from Freud. The fact that by listening carefully to a patient, you can get a lot of insight into what the unconscious is talking about. This is revolutionary stuff. (Kandel) Kandel perfectly outlines the relevance of Freud’s ideas to the common man’s life. However brilliant though, the discussion on whether Freud’s ideas are literary or scientific continues. The topic of Sigmund Freud’s theories eing literary or scientific shadows the debate upon whether Freud’s ideas are authentic. For instance, â€Å"If a theory is incompatible with all possible observations, it is scientific,† but, â€Å"[c]onversely, a theory which is compatible with all possible observations is unscientific† (Girard). In other words, if there is no way to disprove a theory’s findings, it cannot be scientific, and if the observations lead you to further insight about the topic that can be proven with specific results, then you have a true scientific theory.As far as being in favor of a literary theory, Freud’s ideas are always intriguing, and The Interpretation of Dreams is probably the best known book on dream interpretation. Also, â€Å"Freud thought of research on the workings of the psyche as a new frontier of science, but psychoanalysis, for all of its originality as a paradigm for understanding the psyche and its efficacy in curing troubled souls, was essentially a technique for retrieving lost memories† (Hutton 61).This concept from Freud contains ideas that are more poetic than systematic, so far as being in favor of a scientific theory; it provides a glimpse into psychoanalytic work from a man who devoted his whole life to discovering how the human mind functions. The c onsequences of believing Freud’s work was literary is that it did not fare well in the last few decades with the general public. Society did embrace the idea; however, once they look into the details of Freud’s ideas, flaws begin to occur in the logical reasoning.Consequences for believing Freud’s ideas are scientific are that they lack scientific rigor and have little or no substantiation in the scientific community. Freud deemed his work correct and scientific, even through the controversy. All the same, his evidence was biased for he based all examples in The Interpretation of Dreams directly to his life. Overall, â€Å"Freud’s theory- it is not falsifiable† due to the lack of true evidence supporting psychoanalytic experiments with Freud (Thornton). In context to how Freud’s ideas helped the mentally unstable, there is no way to portray exactly how well his methods worked.It is known that he used dream analysis, para praxes, word associa tion, projective tests and hypnosis; however the â€Å"success rate† for these measures varies because â€Å"success† in curing a mentally unstable person cannot be exactly measured. In society at the time, these methods of helping the mentally ill were widely accepted among the general public after Freud brought the idea of psychoanalysis to civilization. Freud honestly thought he was helping society by psychoanalyzing mental patients to discover what was vexing them emotionally.Nonetheless â€Å"The cure is affected essentially by a kind of purgation, a release of psychic energy† in which the patients must undergo a deep self-analysis to find the cause of their illness with the help of a psychoanalytic doctor (Girard). In Freud’s own words directly from The Interpretation of Dreams â€Å"The patient himself must become conscious of unresolved conflicts buried deep in the recess of the unconscious mind† (Freud 58). It was this very idea that made his work â€Å"Influential today so that when people speak of psychoanalysis, they frequently refer exclusively to clinical treatment† (Thornton).On the whole, there is no doubt that Freud’s theories about psychoanalysis and the unconscious mind were influential. However when dealing with mentally ill patients, his theories were unscientific by the experiments he conducted. Freud's psycho dynamic model may seem opaque to us today because he explained it in terms of the technology metaphor of his day. It is as if a scientist today used a current technology such as computers as a metaphor for things that one cannot explain easily.However, Sigmund Freud, although criticized, is a highly respected pioneer of psychology. The dominant paradigm of clinical work of psychiatry and psychology is Freudian work. Overall, Freud's theory of the unconscious assumes a personal mind; a mind inhabited with wishes, desires, and needs that have a biological, intra-psychological origin. Du e to this point, the psychoanalytic theories of Sigmund Freud are difficult to access scientifically as far as helping mentally ill people recover in reference to treatments outlined in his work.

Understanding IQâ€Intelligence Quotient Scores

The measurement of intelligence is a contentious topic, and one that often sparks debate among educators and psychologists. Is intelligence even measurable, they ask? And if so, is its measurement important when it comes to predicting success and failure? Some who study the relevance of intelligence claim that there are many types of intelligence, and maintain that one type is not necessarily better than another. Students who have a high degree of spatial intelligence and a lower degree of verbal intelligence, for instance, can be just as successful as anybody else. The differences have more to do with determination and confidence than one single intelligence factor. But decades ago, leading educational psychologists came to accept the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) as the most acceptable single measuring stick for determining cognitive competence. So what is the IQ, anyway? The IQ is a number that ranges from 0 to 200 (plus), and it is a ratio that is derived by comparing mental age to chronological age. Actually, the intelligence quotient is defined as 100 times the Mental Age (MA) divided by the Chronological Age (CA). IQ 100 MA/CAFrom Geocities.com One of the most notable proponents of the IQ is Linda S. Gottfredson, a scientist and educator who published a highly-regarded article in Scientific American. Gottfredson asserted that Intelligence as measured by IQ tests is the single most effective predictor known of individual performance at school and on the job. Another leading figure in the study of intelligence, Dr. Arthur Jensen, Professor Emeritus of educational psychology at the University of California, Berkeley, has created a chart that spells out the practical implications of various IQ scores. For instance, Jensen stated that people with scores from: 89-100 would be employable as store clerks111-120 have the ability to become policemen and teachers121-125 should have the ability to excel as professors and managers125 and higher demonstrate skills necessary for eminent professors, executives, editors. What Is a High IQ? The average IQ is 100, so anything over 100 is higher than average. However, most models suggest that a genius IQ starts around 140. Opinions about what constitutes a high IQ actually vary from one professional to another. Where Is IQ Measured? IQ tests come in many forms and come with varied results. If you are interested in coming up with your own IQ score, you can choose from a number of free tests that are available online, or you can schedule a test with a professional educational psychologist. Sources and Suggested Reading Gottfredson, Linda S., â€Å"The General Intelligence Factor.† Scientific American November 1998. 27 June 2008.Jensen, Arthur. Straight Talk About Mental Tests. New York: The Free Press, A Division of the Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1981.